What Family of Languages Does Arabic Belong to?
The Indo-European languages are a family of related languages that today are widely spoken in the Americas, Europe, and also Western and Southern asia. Simply as languages such as Spanish, French, Portuguese and Italian are all descended from Latin, Indo-European languages are believed to derive from a hypothetical language known every bit Proto-Indo-European, which is no longer spoken.
It is highly probable that the primeval speakers of this language originally lived around Ukraine and neighbouring regions in the Caucasus and Southern Russia, so spread to most of the residuum of Europe and later down into India. The earliest possible stop of Proto-Indo-European linguistic unity is believed to be around 3400 BCE.
Since the speakers of the Proto-Indo-European linguistic communication did not develop a writing system, nosotros have no physical evidence of it. The science of linguistics has been trying to reconstruct the Proto-Indo-European language using several methods and, although an accurate reconstruction of it seems impossible, nosotros have today a general picture show of what Proto-Indo-European speakers had in common, both linguistically and culturally. In add-on to the use of comparative methods, there are studies based on the comparison of myths, laws, and social institutions.
The ancients came up with the caption that the Latin language was a descendant of the Greek language.
Branches of Indo-European Languages
The Indo-European languages accept a large number of branches: Anatolian, Indo-Iranian, Greek, Italic, Celtic, Germanic, Armenian, Tocharian, Balto-Slavic and Albanian.
Anatolian
This branch of languages was predominant in the Asian portion of Turkey and some areas in northern Syrian arab republic. The most famous of these languages is Hittite. In 1906 CE, a large amount of Hittite finds were made on the site of Hattusas, the capital of the Hittite Kingdom, where almost 10,000 cuneiform tablets and various other fragments were constitute in the remains of a royal archive. These texts date back to the mid to late 2d millennium BCE. Luvian, Palaic, Lycian, and Lydian are other examples of families belonging to this grouping.
All languages of this branch are currently extinct. This branch has the oldest surviving evidence of an Indo-European linguistic communication, dated about 1800 BCE.
Indo-Iranian
This branch includes 2 sub-branches: Indic and Iranian. Today these languages are predominant in Bharat, Pakistan, Iran, and its vicinity and too in areas from the Black Sea to western China.
Sanskrit, which belongs to the Indic sub-branch, is the best known amongst the early languages of this co-operative; its oldest variety, Vedic Sanskrit, is preserved in the Vedas, a drove of hymns and other religious texts of ancient India. Indic speakers entered into the Indian subcontinent, coming from central Asia around 1500 BCE: In the Rig-Veda, the hymn 1.131 speaks about a legendary journey that may be considered a distant memory of this migration.
Avestan is a language that forms role of the Iranian grouping. Old Avestan (sometimes called Gathic Avestan) is the oldest preserved linguistic communication of the Iranian sub-co-operative, the "sis" of Sanskrit, which is the language used in the early Zoroastrian religious texts. Another important language of the Iranian sub-branch is Old Persian, which is the language institute in the royal inscriptions of the Achaemenid dynasty, starting in the late 6th century BCE. The primeval datable evidence of this co-operative dates back to nigh 1300 BCE.
Today, many Indic languages are spoken in India and Islamic republic of pakistan, such as Hindi-Urdu, Punjabi, and Bengali. Iranian languages such as Western farsi (modern Farsi), Pashto, and Kurdish are spoken in Iraq, Islamic republic of iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan.
Indo-European linguistic communication family unit tree
Greek
Rather than a co-operative of languages, Greek is a group of dialects: During more than 3000 years of written history, Greek dialects never evolved into mutually incomprehensible languages. Greek was predominant in the southern finish of the Balkans, the Peloponnese peninsula, and the Aegean Sea and its vicinity. The earliest surviving written evidence of a Greek language is Mycenaean, the dialect of the Mycenaean civilization, mainly found on clay tablets and ceramic vessels on the isle of Crete. Mycenaean did non accept an alphabetic written organisation, rather it had a syllabic script known equally the Linear B script.
The first alphabetic inscriptions accept been dated back to the early 8th century BCE, which is probably the time when the Homeric epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey, reached their present form. In that location were many Greek dialects in ancient times, but because of Athens cultural supremacy in the 5th century BCE, it was the Athens dialect, chosen Cranium, the one that became the standard literary language during the Classical period (480-323 BCE). Therefore, the most famous Greek poesy and prose written in Classical times were written in Attic: Aristophanes, Aristotle, Euripides, and Plato are just a few examples of authors who wrote in Cranium.
Italic
This branch was predominant in the Italian peninsula. The Italic people were not natives of Italy; they entered Italian republic crossing the Alps around thousand BCE and gradually moved due south. Latin, the nigh famous language in this grouping, was originally a relatively small local linguistic communication spoken by pastoral tribes living in pocket-sized agricultural settlements in the centre of the Italian peninsula. The first inscriptions in Latin appeared in the 7th century BCE and by the sixth century BCE it had spread significantly.
Rome was responsible for the growth of Latin in aboriginal times. Classical Latin is the grade of Latin used past the about famous works of Roman authors like Ovid, Cicero, Seneca, Pliny, and Marcus Aurelius. Other languages of this branch are: Faliscan, Sabellic, Umbrian, South Picene, and Oscan, all of them extinct.
Today Romance languages are the only surviving descendants of the Italic branch.
Map of Indo-Euopean Migrations
Celtic
This co-operative contains two sub-branches: Continental Celtic and Insular Celtic. By nearly 600 BCE, Celtic-speaking tribes had spread from what today are southern Germany, Austria, and Western Czech republic in nigh all directions, to France, Belgium, Kingdom of spain, and the British Isles, then past 400 BCE, they likewise moved southward into northern Italy and southeast into the Balkans and even beyond. During the early on 1st century BCE, Celtic-speaking tribes dominated a very significant portion of Europe. On 50 BCE, Julius Caesar conquered Gaul (aboriginal France) and Britain was also conquered about a century after by the emperor Claudius. As a result, this large Celtic-speaking area was absorbed past Rome, Latin became the dominant language, and the Continental Celtic languages eventually died out. The principal Continental linguistic communication was Gaulish.
Insular Celtic developed in the British Isles after Celtic-speaking tribes entered around the 6th century BCE. In Republic of ireland, Insular Celtic flourished, aided by the geographical isolation which kept Ireland relatively rubber from the Roman and Anglo-Saxon invasion.
The simply Celtic languages still spoken today (Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Welsh and Breton) all come from Insular Celtic.
Germanic
The Germanic branch is divided in iii sub-branches: Eastward Germanic, currently extinct; North Germanic, containing Quondam Norse, the ancestor of all modern Scandinavian languages; and West Germanic, containing Old English, Old Saxon, and Erstwhile High High german.
The earliest evidence of Germanic-speaking people dates dorsum to commencement half of the 1st millennium BCE, and they lived in an area stretching from southern Scandinavia to the coast of the Due north Baltic Bounding main. During prehistoric times, the Germanic speaking tribes came into contact with Finnic speakers in the north and also with Balto-Slavic tribes in the e. As a result of this interaction, the Germanic language borrowed several terms from Finnish and Balto-Slavic.
Several varieties of Quondam Norse were spoken by well-nigh Vikings. Native Nordic pre-Christian Germanic mythology and sociology has been also preserved in Old Norse, in a dialect named Old Icelandic.
Dutch, English, Frisian, and Yiddish are some examples of modern survivors of the Westward Germanic sub-branch, while Danish, Faroese, Icelandic, Norwegian, and Swedish are survivors of the North Germanic branch.
Armenian
The origins of the Armenian-speaking people is a topic notwithstanding unresolved. It is probable that the Armenians and the Phrygians belonged to the same migratory moving ridge that entered Anatolia, coming from the Balkans around the late 2nd millennium BCE. The Armenians settled in an area around Lake Van, currently Turkey; this region belonged to the state of Urartu during the early on 1st millennium BCE. In the 8th century BCE, Urartu came under Assyrian control and in the 7th century BCE, the Armenians took over the region. The Medes absorbed the region soon after and Armenia became a vassal state. During the time of the Achaemenid Empire, the region turned into a Persian satrap. The Persian domination had a strong linguistic impact on Armenian, which mislead many scholars in the by to believe that Armenian really belonged to the Iranian group.
Tocharian
The history of the Tocharian-speaking people is still surrounded past mystery. We know that they lived in the Taklamakan Desert, located in western Communist china. Most of the Tocharian texts left are translations from well-known Buddhist works, and all of these texts have been dated between the 6th and the eighth centuries CE. None of these texts speak near the Tocharians themselves. Two different languages vest to this branch: Tocharian A and Tocharian B. Remains of the Tocharian A language have but been found in places where Tocharian B documents have besides been found, which would advise that Tocharian A was already extinct, kept live but as a religious or poetic language, while Tocharian B was the living linguistic communication used for administrative purposes.
Many well-preserved mummies with Caucasoid features such as tall stature, red, blonde, and brown hair, take been discovered in the Taklamakan Desert, dating betwixt 1800 BCE to 200 CE. The weaving style and patterns of their dress is similar to the Hallstatt culture in central Europe. Physical analysis and genetic bear witness have revealed resemblances with the inhabitants of western Eurasia.
This co-operative is completely extinct. Amidst all ancient Indo-European languages, Tocharian was spoken farthest to the eastward.
Balto-Slavic
This branch contains ii sub-branches: Baltic and Slavic.
During the late Statuary Age, the Balts' territory may have stretched from around western Poland all the way across to the Ural Mountains. Afterwards, the Balts occupied a small region forth the Baltic Sea. Those in the northern part of the territory occupied by the Balts were in close contact with Finnic tribes, whose language was non office of the Indo-European language family: Finnic speakers borrowed a considerable amount of Baltic words, which suggests that the Balts had an important cultural prestige in that area. Under the pressure level of Gothic and Slavic migrations, the territory of the Balts was reduced towards the 5th century CE.
Archaeological bear witness shows that from 1500 BCE, either the Slavs or their ancestors occupied an area stretching from near the western Smooth borders towards the Dnieper River in Belarus. During the 6th century CE, the Slav-speaking tribes expanded their territory, migrating into Greece and the Balkans: this is when they are mentioned for the start fourth dimension, in Byzantine records referring to this large migration. Either some or all of the Slavs were in one case located further to the east, in or around Iranian territory, since many Iranian words were borrowed into pre-Slavic at an early stage. Afterwards on, as they moved due west, they came into contact with German tribes and again borrowed several additional terms.
Only two Baltic languages survive today: Latvian and Lithuanian. A large number of Slavic languages survive today, such as Bulgarian, Czech, Croation, Shine, Serbian, Slovak, Russian, and many others.
Albanian
Albanian is the last branch of Indo-European languages to appear in written form. In that location are 2 hypotheses on the origin of Albanian. The first one says that Albanian is a modernistic descendant of Illyrian, a language which was widely spoken in the region during classical times. Since we know very little most Illyrian, this exclamation can be neither denied nor confirmed from a linguistic standpoint. From a historical and geographical perspective, however, this assertion makes sense. Another hypotheses says that Albanian is a descendant of Thracian, some other lost language that was spoken further e than Illyrian.
Today Albanian is spoken in Albania as the official language, in several other areas in of the former Yugoslavia and besides in small enclaves in southern Italy, Greece and the Republic of Republic of macedonia.
Unaffiliated Languages
All languages in this grouping are either extinct or they are a former phase of a modernistic language. Examples of this groups of languages are Phrygian, Thracian, Ancient Macedonian (non to exist confused with Macedonian, a linguistic communication currently spoken in the Republic of Macedonia, role of the Slavic branch), Illyrian, Venetic, Messapic, and Lusitanian.
Indo-European Historical Linguistics
In aboriginal times it was noticed that some languages presented hitting similarities: Greek and Latin are a well-known case. During classical artifact it was noted, for example, that Greek héks "vi" and heptá "seven" were similar to the Latin sexual practice and septem. Furthermore, the regular correspondence of the initial h- in Greek to the initial s- in Latin was pointed out.
The explanation that the ancients came upwards with was that the Latin linguistic communication was a descendant of Greek language. Centuries later, during and after the Renaissance, the close similarities between more than languages were likewise noted, and it was understood that sure groups of languages were related, such as Icelandic and English, and too the Romance languages. Despite all of these observations, the science of linguistics did not develop much farther until the 18th century CE.
During the British colonial expansion into India, a British orientalist and jurist named Sir William Jones became familiar with the Sanskrit language. Jones was also knowledgeable in Greek and Latin and was surprised past the similarities betwixt these three languages. During a lecture on Feb 2, 1786 CE, Sir William Jones expressed his new ideas:
The Sanskrit language, whatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful structure; more than perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the roots of verbs and the forms of grammer, than could maybe have been produced by blow; and so stiff indeed, that no philologer could examine them all 3, without believing them to take sprung from some mutual source, which, peradventure, no longer exists; there is a similar reason, though non quite so forcible, for supposing that both the Gothic and the Celtic, though blended with a very dissimilar idiom, had the same origin with the Sanskrit; and the old Persian might be added to the same family, if this were the place for discussing any question concerning the antiquity of Persia. (Fortson, p. 9)
The idea that Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, and Western farsi were derived from a common source was revolutionary at that time. This was a turning point in the history of linguistics. Rather than the "daughter" of Greek, Latin was for the kickoff fourth dimension understood as the "sister" of Greek. Past condign familiar with Sanskrit, a linguistic communication geographically far removed from Greek and Latin, and realizing that chance was an insufficient explanation for the similarities between these languages, Sir William Jones presented a new insight which triggered the development of modernistic linguistics.
This article has been reviewed for accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards prior to publication.
Source: https://www.worldhistory.org/Indo-European_Languages/
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